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The initiator of the pathophysiological process has not been elucidated yet, although acute gastrointestinal infections have been found to initiate the symptoms in a certain group of patients with IBS (post-infectious IBS) (81)

IL-33 down-regulates CLDN1 expression through the ERK/STAT3 pathway in keratinocytes

SS-31 (elamipretide) , a mitochondria-targeted peptide that stabilizes cardiolipin to support energy production, became the first FDA-approved mitochondrial therapeutic in 2025, though only for the rare Barth syndrome, with the brain rationale still mechanistic and no cognitive trials

The convenience of oral administration helps improve patient treatment compliance

There are two distinct mechanisms by which B12 is absorbed: 1) passive diffusion across the mucous membranes of the gastrointestinal tract (Figure 1)